Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

Discussion of Results: This study found that the woodwork in the first-floor southeast room retains excellent, intact paint evidence that elucidates the decorative and structural history of this room. The first five finish generations are deep blue paints, and the presence or absence of certain generations helped reconstruct the history of this room in two specific phases (see photomicrographs below), in particular, that the wainscot panelling is later than the rest of the woodwork.

According to the architectural report (Wenger 1986, 35), parts of the mantel are original. However, on site multiple excavations were made and this element appeared to contain only modern paints, and was not sampled.

Generation 1: This reflects the earliest form of the house, which dates to c.1751 and consists of the stair passage and eastern rooms on the first and second floors, including this room. The paint analysis suggests that in this period, the woodwork in this room was sealed with shellac (identified by its orange autofluorescence in the wood cells), and primed with a thin gray-colored primer (generation 1a), made with lead white, chalk, carbon black, and a few earth pigments. This is the same gray primer used in the adjacent stair passage (see Stair Passage section, p. 40). This primer was then painted with two layers of deep blue-green paint (generations 1b and 1c), composed of lead white, Prussian blue, and a small amount of yellow earth pigment. There is a very thin layer of grime on the surface of this paint.

NI 43b, visible light, 400x (door leaf to passage)

NI 43b, UV light, 400x (door leaf to passage)

The presence of this paint helped identify first period elements. It was found on the west wall door architrave and leaf (see samples NI 42 and 43, pp. 11-14), the north wall door architrave and leaf (NI 69 and 70, pp. 15-16), and the window architraves on the south wall (NI 66, p. 17). Although only the easternmost window was sampled, the western window was examined and found to contain the same paints.

Generation 2: This paint was also found on all first period elements. In cross-section, this layer is thick, translucent, and greenish, with small dark particles suspended within it. Under UV light, it has a brighter, orange-colored autofluorescence suggestive of a shellac resin, which would have been very glossy. PLM determined that the dark pigment particles are actually indigo, a blue pigment that is known to have been imported into Williamsburg, but one that has not yet been identified in a house interior to date (based on the author's knowledge). Although today this finish is very green (see color match, p. 30), this could result from oxidation of the resinous media, and/or pigment fading (Bristow 1996, 14). The actual color would have to be determined through mock-ups using traditional materials.

Generations 3 and 4: These paints were also found on all first period elements. Both generations are coarsely ground blue paints of almost identical color. In most samples, they looked like a single generation with no boundary between them, suggesting they were applied within a relatively short period of time. However, a few samples illustrated this boundary (see sample NI 43, p. 13), suggesting these are actually two separate, albeit very similar, paint generations.

Generation 5: This was the earliest paint on the wainscot panels and baseboards (see samples NI 44-46, pp. 18-20), an indication that these elements are later. This finish consists of a gray primer (generation 5a) and a blue paint (generation 5b), which is somewhat lighter in color than the previous blue paint generations. This paint is covered by a thick layer of grime and dirt, suggesting it was exposed for a relatively long period of time.

It seems likely that the wainscot in this room is contemporary with the wainscot panelling in the adjacent stair passage, which was also later. It is estimated that the wainscot in the stair passage was installed c.1777. Therefore the wainscot in this room would have the same approximate date.

Binding media analysis was inconclusive regarding these early paints (pp. 21-23). However, visual analysis suggests they are traditional oil-bound paints (with the exception of generation 2, which appears to have a resinous binder).

Generation 6: This finish was found throughout the first floor of the house. This scheme consisted of faux-wood grained door leaves, stairs, and baseboards, possibly in imitation of a light-colored wood, such as oak, with the architraves and wainscot painted a cream color. The wainscot caps, stair handrails and newel posts appear to have been painted to imitate a more orange-red-colored wood. This scheme is consistent with an early 19th-century date, and most likely reflects the period of the Power occupancy (1803 - c.1840).

Generation 7: This scheme consists of a finely ground, resinous grayish-colored paint on the door architraves, wainscot, and baseboard. This paint has a bright bluish, twinkling autofluorescence characteristic of zinc white (ZnO), a pigment that was not commercially available in housepaints until c.1845. During this same period, the door leaves, window architraves, and chair rails were painted black.

Generations 8-11: These paints are all finely ground, smooth, and consistent white paints that appear to have been industrially prepared, and probably date to the late 19th or early 20th century.

Generations 12-14: These are blue-colored paints, the earliest of which probably dates to 1940, when Cogar restored the house. Cogar noted in his diary that rudimentary paint scrapes carried out by himself and his mother found that the first paint in the passage was yellow. It seems likely that these scrapes were carried out on one of the doorways on the west wall, where the wood was first painted with a yellow-tan primer (generation 2a).

Generation 15: This generation is a modern, yellow-colored paint.

Generations 16-18: These represent the present pale blue, or 'pearl' colored paints in the passage.

First-Floor Southeast Room [Room 107] — Sample Locations

west wall, doorway to passage

north wall, doorway to present kitchen

south wall, east window

mantel, northeast corner

First-Floor Southeast Room [Room 107] — Binding Media Analysis

First-Floor Southeast Room [Room 107] - Pigment ID

First-Floor Southeast Room [Room 107] — Colorimetry

Discussion of Results: The early paint history of the woodwork in this room is very similar that of the adjacent southeast room, and suggests that during the Nicolson period (1751-1797), these rooms were painted in the same manner, and therefore chromatically linked. Since this room contains the same early paints as the southeast room, fluorochrome staining, color matching, and pigment ID were not carried out.

This room is the present kitchen, and as such as been much re-worked. There is not as much original woodwork here as in the other rooms, and no wainscot. Fewer samples were taken from this space, and the early paints in general were more disrupted. However, there was more than enough evidence to determine that some of the existing woodwork dates to Period 1 (c.1751).

Generation 1: Like the southeast room, the woodwork in this room was sealed with shellac, primed with a thin gray-colored primer (generation 1a), and painted with two layers of deep blue-green paint (generations 1b and 1c).

The presence of this paint helped identify first period elements. It was found on the south wall door leaf and architrave (see samples NI 72 and 71, pp. 36 and 38), the door architrave to the passage (NI 74, p. 37), and the chair rail on the south wall (NI 73, p. 39).

Generation 2: This paint was also found on all first period elements. It is the pigmented varnish (indigo) that was used in the adjacent southeast room.

Generation 3: Another blue paint. This is the final early blue paint layer, whereas the adjacent southeast room was painted blue up to five times. This suggests that the northeast room was not painted as often by comparison. The third generation blue paint is very grimy and exposed for a long period of time.

Generations 4 and 5: Compared to the adjacent southeast room, this room appears to have been unpainted during these periods.

Generation 6: This is the faux-wood graining scheme found throughout the first floor of the house.

Generation 7: Compared to the adjacent southeast room, this room appears not to have been repainted during this period.

Generation 8: It appears that all of the woodwork in this room was painted a brick red color. This paint was found throughout the first floor of the house.

Generations 9-16: These are thick paints with smooth surfaces and finely ground pigment particles, suggestive of modern paints. The present color is red-brown.

First-Floor Northeast Room [Rooms 106 and 108] — Sample Location Photos

south wall, door to southeast room

east wall, entrance door

west wall, door to passage

Discussion of Results: This study found that the stair passage woodwork retains excellent, intact paint evidence to confirm some of the known construction history of the space, in particular the first period finish in 1751 and the finish after the western expansion c.1764, as well as to clarify how this space changed after that period.

The first three finish generations (generations 1, 2, and 5), are dark brown paints of almost identical color, which, at high magnification, have very different appearances in visible and UV light. Characteristics such as pigment composition and autofluorescence were important factors in identifying each individual generation. The presence or absence of certain generations helped reconstruct the history of this room in three specific phases. Please refer to page 43 for the three best photomicrographs illustrating these phases.

Generation 1: This reflects the earliest form of the house, which dates to c. 1751 and consists of the stair passage and eastern rooms on the first and second floors. The paint analysis suggests that in this period, the woodwork in the passage was sealed with shellac (identified by its orange autofluorescence in the wood cells), and primed with a thin gray-colored primer (generation 1a), made with lead white, chalk, carbon black, and a few earth pigments. This is the same gray primer used in the adjacent eastern rooms. The woodwork was then painted with a dark brown paint (generation 1b), that was very coarsely ground, and contained large chunks of carbon black pigments, red lead pigments, and earth pigments ranging from deep red, brown, and yellow. These large pigment particles made this first generation dark brown paint easy to identify in all of the cross-section samples. This paint was coated with a very thin layer of autofluorescent material, probably a plant resin varnish (generation 1c), which would have created a glossy surface. This varnish was worn away in most samples and was not always present. The best example of this finish was found in sample NI 39, taken from the door leaf to the cellar stair (see p. 52).

The presence of this first generation finish helped identify the first period woodwork in the passage. This finish was found on the entire staircase (see samples NI 2, 9, 15, 18; pp. 52-55), and stair stringer (NI 3, p. 56). It was also found on the cellar door leaf and architrave (NI 39, 40; pp. 54-57), the north entrance door leaf and architrave (NI 80, 81; pp. 59-60), the south entrance door leaf and architrave (NI 79, 78; pp. 65-66), the door architrave leading to the northeast room (NI 75, p. 62), and the door leaf and architrave leading to the southeast room (NI 22, 20; pp. 63-64). It should be noted that the east jamb of the north (original, rear) door architrave might have been moved from one of the eastern rooms, since the paint history of that jamb more closely resembles the paints in those spaces (NI 83, p. 61).

Most importantly, the first generation paint was NOT found on the two doorways leading to the west room, the wainscot, or the closet in the northwest corner, which confirms that these elements post-date the first period.

Generation 2: This reflects the second form of the house, when the western addition was constructed c.1764. During this period, the passage woodwork was re-painted with another dark brown paint (generation 2b). Although it is the same color as the previous generation, this paint is much more finely-ground, and has a very dim autofluorescence in UV light. This paint was so thin it could not be isolated for pigment identification.

This was the earliest finish on the door architraves and leaves on the west wall, having been painted over a shellac sealant, and a yellowish-tan priming layer (generation 2a), made with yellow ochre, white lead, and some carbon black pigments. On the rest of the woodwork, it was simply painted over the extant coarsely-ground dark brown paint. Like the previous generation, the paint was coated with a thin layer of resinous varnish (generation 2c), which was not found in all samples, suggesting it was worn away.

Therefore, the results confirm that the door architraves and leaves on the west wall date to Period 2, c.1764, when the western wing was constructed. This evidence was found on the doorway to the southwest room (see samples NI 76 and 27, pp. 67-68), and the doorway to the northwest room (see samples NI 30 and 31, pp. 69-70). In addition, this provided a benchmark date for the second generation dark brown paint, and determined that approximately thirteen years had passed before the stair passage was re-painted.

Generations 3, 4:
During this period the stair passage was not repainted. By comparison, the southeast room was re-painted twice. The finishes appear to align in the next generation (generation 5), when the wainscot panelling was installed in both spaces.

Generation 5: An exact date for this period is unknown, but it had to occur after 1764. During this period, all of the passage woodwork was again painted dark brown (generation 5b), this time with a paint containing approximately 1:1 carbon black and red iron earth pigments, all finely ground. This paint was also coated with a varnish (generation 5c), which in most samples was heavily worn, soiled, and disrupted, suggesting a long period of exposure. This was the earliest finish on all of the wainscot panelling, the closet in the northwest corner of the passage, and the baseboards. In fact, on these elements the fifth generation dark brown was painted over a gray primer (generation 5a).

Therefore, the results suggest that the wainscot, northwest closet, and baseboards were added in Period 3 (paint generation 5). This evidence was found on the wainscot below the stair stringer (see sample NI 7, p. 71), the wainscot along the stair (NI 11 and 16, pp. 72-73), and the wainscot on the west wall (NI 13 and 14, pp. 74-75). It was also found on the northwest closet paneling (NI 35, p. 76) the closet door leaf (NI 32, p. 77), and the baseboards throughout the room (NI 36, p. 78).

It would seem likely that the wainscot in the passage is contemporary with the wainscot in the first-floor southeast room, which was also first painted with a gray primer and a blue paint that was applied to the rest of the woodwork in the fifth generation. This would suggest that the southwest room was painted more frequently than the passage.

Paint generations one and two appear to have the same level of surface exposure and disruption. Knowing that generation one was exposed for thirteen years, it is possible that generation two was exposed for a 42 similar period of time. This is purely theoretical, but suggests that the fifth generation could date to c.1777. Interestingly, this is the year that Nicolson stopped taking in lodgers at his house (Samford, 1986), as it was no longer a financial necessity. Therefore, this upgrade could reflect Nicolson's desire to have the interior of his house to reflect his growing fortunes and rising social status.

After the fifth generation, the passage appears to have been unpainted for a long period of time. The varnish (generation 5c) is very soiled and disrupted, and deep cracks extend through the surface of the paint, and even into generations one and two. This could suggest that this finish was exposed to the end of Nicolson's residency (Nicolson passed away in 1797), and into the early 19th century, when the house passed from the Nicolson family to the Power family in 1803.

Binding media analysis was inconclusive regarding these early paints (pp. 21-23). However, visual analysis suggests they are traditional oil-bound paints (with the exception of generation 2, which appears to have a resinous binder).

Generation six: This finish was found throughout the house, most notably as the sixth paint generation in the first-floor southwest room. Therefore, it is delineated generation six in all rooms. This scheme consisted of faux-wood grained door leaves, stairs, and baseboards, possibly in imitation of a light-colored wood, such as oak, with the architraves and wainscot painted a cream color. The wainscot caps, stair handrails and newel posts appear to have been grain-painted to imitate a more orange-red-colored wood. This scheme is consistent with an early 19th-century date, and most likely reflects the period of the Power occupancy (1803 - c.1840).

Generation seven: This scheme consists of a finely ground, resinous grayish-colored paint on the staircase and wainscot. This paint has a bright bluish, twinkling autofluorescence characteristic of zinc white (ZnO), a pigment that was not commercially available in housepaints until c.1845. During this same period, the door leaves and architraves were painted dark brown with a resinous paint.

Generation eight: The scheme during this period is unclear. A thin layer of brick-red colored paint was found on a few elements (cellar door leaf and architrave, north entrance door leaf, closet leaf, door leaf to the northwest room), but in all other samples there was only a white paint.

Generations 9-11: These paints are all finely ground, smooth, and consistent white paints that appear to have been industrially prepared, and probably date to the late 19th or early 20th century.

Generations 12-15: These are yellow-ochre colored paints, the earliest of which probably dates to 1940, when Cogar restored the house. Cogar noted in his diary that rudimentary paint scrapes carried out by himself and his mother found that the first paint in the passage was yellow. It seems likely that these scrapes were carried out on one of the doorways on the west wall, where the wood was first painted with a yellow-tan primer (generation 2a).

Generations 16-18: These represent the present pale blue, or 'pearl' colored paints in the passage.

First-Floor Stair Passage [Room 105] — Sample Location Photos

overall view, facing north

overall view, facing southeast

overall view, facing south

12th full baluster from first floor

17th full baluster from first floor

stair stringer

stair stringer

stair stringer

panelling under stair

panelling under stair

baseboard under stair

stair handrail, west face

wainscot along east side of stair

newel post

wainscot at stair landing

wainscot at stair landing

horizontal architrave in stairwell

doorway to SE room

doorway to SE room, right architrave

south entrance door (blocked by heavy furniture)

south entrance door (blocked by heavy furniture)

south wall, pegboard

architrave of door to SW room

door to SW room

west wall, southernmost panel

west wall, wainscot cap left of SW room

architrave of door to NW room

door leaf to NW room

closet at NW corner of passage

baseboard on west wall, right of NW room

east side of NW closet

north entrance door

doorway to present kitchen (NE room)

south entrance door

First-Floor Stair Passage [Room 105] - Colorimetry

Discussion of results: This study found that the woodwork in the first-floor southwest room retains excellent, intact paint evidence that elucidates the decorative and structural history of this room. Since this west wing of the house was constructed c.1764, the earliest paint is this room is labelled generation 2.

Interestingly, in contrast to the stair passage and the first-floor southeast room, the paint analysis results suggest that the wainscot in this room (and the adjacent northwest room) was not added later, but is contemporary with the rest of the second-period woodwork.

Generation 2: This generation consists of a shellac sealant (identified by its orange autofluorescence) followed by a coarsely ground gray primer that contains lead white, carbon black, and a few scattered, large red earth pigment particles. This was finished with a coarsely ground yellow-green paint that contains white lead, yellow earth pigments, and small amounts of Prussian blue and carbon black. In a few samples (NI 48, p. 98 and NI 51, p. 96) there was a thin layer of grime on the surface of this paint, suggesting it was exposed for a relatively long period of time.

This finish was found on all woodwork in the room, including the mantel (NI 52 and 53, pp. 94-95), the door architrave and leaf to the passage (NI 50, p. 97), and the wainscot panels (NI 48 and 55, p. 98). Therefore, the wainscot in this room is contemporary with the rest of the woodwork and would date to c.1764, unlike the passage and east rooms, where it was added c.1777.

Generation 3: This generation consists of a coarsely ground blue-green paint made with lead white, yellow earth, and large particles of Prussian blue pigment. There is a thin, brownish layer on the surface of this paint that could be grime or an oil-based varnish (based on its dim autofluorescence in UV).

Generations 4-5: During these periods, the mantel was painted black and varnished. The rest of the woodwork appears to have been unpainted.

Binding media analysis determined there were no proteins or carbohydrates in these early paints. There was a very weak positive reaction for oils (DCF+), confirming the visual analysis that these are traditional oilbound finishes (p. 99-101).

Generation 6: This generation is the same scheme of cream-colored woodwork and faux-grained doors

Generation eight: The scheme during this period is unclear. A thin layer of brick-red colored paint was found on the mantel, but in all other samples there was only a white paint.

Generations 9-12: These paints are all finely ground, smooth, and consistent white paints that appear to have been industrially prepared, and probably date to the late 19th or early 20th century.

Generations 13-17: These are modern paints, including the present pale blue color. Generation 13 is the first of three green-colored paints, which probably dates to 1940, when Cogar restored the house. Cogar noted in his diary that rudimentary paint scrapes carried out by himself and his mother found that the first paint in this room was green (Wenger 1986, 28).

First-Floor Southwest Room [Room 102] - Sample Location Photos

east wall, door architrave

south wall, wainscot

east wall, door leaf

east wall, door leaf

mantel

mantel backboard

mantel overall

First-Floor Southwest Room [Room 102] - Colorimetry

Discussion of Results: This room was constructed c.1764, at the same time as the adjacent southwest room. Accordingly, these rooms share the same paint history. This suggests that during the Nicolson period (1751-1797), these rooms were painted in the same manner, and therefore chromatically linked. Since this room contains the same early paints as the southwest room, fluorochrome staining, color matching, and pigment ID were not carried out. Please refer to the southwest room section for that information.

Like the adjacent southwest room, the paint analysis results suggest that the wainscot in this room is contemporary with the rest of the woodwork. The mantel was installed in 1940 and was not sampled.

Generation 2: This generation consists of a shellac sealant (identified by its orange autofluorescence) followed by a coarsely ground gray primer that contains lead white, carbon black, and a few scattered, large red earth pigment particles. This was finished with a coarsely ground yellow-green paint that contains white lead, yellow earth pigments, and small amounts of Prussian blue and carbon black. There was usually a thin layer of grime on the surface of this paint, suggesting it was exposed for a relatively long period of time.

This finish was found on all woodwork in the room, including the door architrave and leaf to the passage (NI 61 and NI 62 p. 114), and the closet door architrave and leaf (NI 59, 60, p. 113), the wainscot (NI 56, 58, p. 112), and the window architraves (NI 64, p. 115). Therefore, the wainscot in this room is contemporary with the rest of the woodwork and would date to c.1764, unlike the passage and east rooms, where it was added c.1777.

Generation 3: This generation consists of a coarsely ground blue-green paint made with lead white, yellow earth, and large particles of Prussian blue pigment. There is a thin, brownish layer on the surface of this paint that could be grime or an oil-based varnish (based on its dim autofluorescence in UV).

Generations 4-5: The scheme during these periods is unknown. In the adjacent room, the mantel was painted black and varnished, while the rest of the woodwork was unpainted.

Generation 6: This generation is the same scheme of cream-colored woodwork and faux-grained door leaves and chair rails that was used in the rest of the house. During this period the mantel was probably painted black and varnished, as it was in the adjacent southwest room.

Generation eight: A thin layer of brick-red colored paint was found all of the woodwork (this layer was cropped out of the wainscot photomicrographs).

Generations 9-12: These paints are all finely ground, smooth, and consistent white paints that appear to have been industrially prepared, and probably date to the late 19th or early 20th century.

Generations 13-17: These are modern paints, including the present pale blue color. Generation 13 is the first of three green-colored paints, which probably dates to 1940, when Cogar restored the house. Cogar noted in his diary that rudimentary paint scrapes carried out by himself and his mother found that the first paint in this room was green (Wenger 1986, 28).

First-Floor Northwest Room [Room 101] - Sample Locations

doorway to passage

south wall, closet

south wall, wainscot

mantel (new)

north wall

Discussion of Results: The second-floor stair passage woodwork does not contain as many paints as the first-floor, but it does contain the same first generation finish as the first-floor passage, indicating that there are a good number of surviving first period elements in this space.

Generation 1: The woodwork was sealed with shellac (identified by its orange autofluorescence in the wood cells), and primed with a thin gray-colored primer (generation 1a), followed by a dark brown paint (generation 1b), that was very coarsely ground, and contained large chunks of carbon black pigments, red lead pigments, and earth pigments ranging from deep red, brown, and yellow. This was coated with a very thin layer of varnish (1c), which was completely worn away in most samples. This is the same first generation finish in the first-floor stair passage, and dates to c.1751.

The presence of this first generation finish helped identify the first period woodwork in the passage. The door leaf and architrave to the west passage are new, but first period elements include the door architrave on the east wall (see sample NI 84, p. 119), and the door leaves to the eastern rooms (NI 86, 87, pp. 120- 121), as well as the architrave to the present bathroom (NI 89, p. 122).

In a few samples, there did appear to be some grime on the surface of the gray primer (see sample NI 84, p. 119). This suggests that the primer here might have been exposed longer before being repainted, or this could simply be an anomaly of the sample.

Generation 2: This finish is believed to date to c.1764, and is the same dark brown paint used on the first-floor passage woodwork. Although it is the same color as the previous generation, this paint is much more finely-ground, and has a very dim autofluorescence in UV light. It was very deteriorated and missing from some samples, but was clearly present in sample NI 87 (door leaf to southeast room).

One exception is the door leaf to the present bathroom. The earliest paint on this leaf is the yellow-tan primer that was used the western door leaves and architraves in the first-floor passage (c.1764). Here, it appears to have been used as a finish coat (see NI 90, p. 123 and compare to NI 30, p. 70). It was also found on much of the woodwork in the second-floor west wing (see sections for present bathroom, second-floor west passage, southwest and northwest rooms). This suggests that this door leaf was moved from one of the western rooms, although it is not clear which one.

Generation 6: The woodwork in this space appears to have been unpainted in generations 3-5. Generation six is a faux-wood graining finish with a peach-colored base coat (6a) and a brown glaze (6b). Generation 117 6b is not seen in all samples. This finish is visually very similar to the sixth generation faux-wood graining finish on the first floor. It seems likely that these finishes are contemporary. This finish is believed to date to the early-mid 19th century.

Generations 7-9: These are smooth, consistent, finely ground modern white paints that appear to have been industrially prepared.

Generations 10-14: These are modern paints. The earliest probably dates to the Cogar-era (1940).

Second-Floor, Main Passage [Room 206] — Sample Location Photos

east wall, doors to east rooms

south wall, door to present bathroom

west wall, doorway to west passage and rooms

Discussion of Results: The only old woodwork in the present bathroom is the door leaf to the passage. The earliest paint on this leaf is the yellow-tan paint that was used as a primer on Period 2 doors in the first-floor stair passage. There, it was coated with a dark brown paint to match the rest of the stair. Here, it was used as a finish coat (see comparison below).

This suggests that this leaf dates to c.1764, and it must have been moved to the bathroom from another area of the house, presumably from the second-floor western wing. It may have been moved from the western wall, since the present door leaf is entirely new.

The door leaf contains generation six, the faux wood graining finish, and generation eight, the brick red paint. The rest of the stratigraphy consists of modern white paints up to the present.

2nd floor bathroom, door leaf to passage
NI 91a, visible light, 200x

First floor, yellow-tan primer on c.1764 doors
NI 30a, visible light, 200x

Sample NI 91: door leaf to passage, lower right panel, upper left corner

NI 91b, visible light, 200x

NI 91b, UV light, 200x

NI 91a, visible light, 200x

NI 91a, UV light, 200x

Discussion of Results: The only old woodwork in this room was the door leaf and trim on the west wall. The sample from the leaf (NI 92, p. 127) contained mostly modern paints, with remnants of what could be an early gray primer in the wood cells.

The sample from the trim (NI 93, p. 128), also began with the early gray primer and what looked like a varnish, followed by the sixth generation faux-wood graining finish.

None of the earliest brown paints were found. It is possible that this woodwork was stripped. The baseboards were examined but contained only a few layers of modern black paint. They were not sampled.

Second-Floor, Northeast Room [Room 208] — Sample Location Photos

west wall, door to passage

Discussion of Results: The only woodwork in this room that appeared to contain old paint was the door leaf to the passage (sample NI 105). The mantel did not appear to contain old paints, but since it is purported to be an original element, one sample was collected (NI 106).

The sample from the door leaf contained mostly modern paints, but started with the gray primer on the wood, followed by the sixth generation wood-graining finish.

The mantel did not contain any historic paints. Its stratigraphy began with multiple layers of black paints and varnishes. Remnants of the early gray primer were not seen. This mantel has probably been stripped of its historic finishes.

Second-Floor, Southeast Room [Room 209] - Sample Location Photos

west wall, door to passage

mantel

Discussion of Results: All of the woodwork in the western passage appears old, and begins with the c.1764 yellow-tan paint, which was also used as a primer on the first-floor western doors. This is followed by the generation six faux-wood graining, followed by modern paints.

The door architrave to the southwest room (NI 96, p. 135), and door leaves to the northwest and southwest rooms (NI 97 and 98, p. 136), were the same, starting with the c.1764 yellow-tan paint. The early paints on the door architrave to the present bathroom (NI 94, not shown), were missing.

The baseboards were examined but contained only a few layers of modern black paint. They were not sampled.

Second-Floor, West Passage [Room 205] — Sample Location Photos

south wall

south wall (showing present bathroom)

doorway to SW room

passage-side of door to NW room

Discussion of Results: The door leaf to the passage (NI 99, p. 138), was the only element in this room to contain old paints. The window architrave (NI 100, p. 139), and the baseboards (NI 101, not shown), contained modern paints only. The other woodwork appeared new and was not sampled.

The door leaf to the passage has the same early paint history as the other second-floor west spaces. The earliest paint is the yellow-tan primer that dates to c.1764. This is followed by the sixth generation woodgraining finish. Modern paints make up the rest of the stratigraphy.

Second-Floor, Southwest Room [Room 202] — Sample Location Photos

door to passage

southwest corner of room

Discussion of Results: The door leaf and trim leading to the passage (NI 102, p. 142), was the only element in this room to contain old paints. The trim around this door had the same paints but was not sampled. The earliest paint on the mantel (NI 103, p. 143) was a black paint, and the rest of the sample contains modern paints. It is unclear if this black paint dates to the 18th century. The other woodwork in this room appeared new and was not sampled.

The door leaf and trim to the passage has the same early paint history as the other second-floor west spaces. The earliest paint is the yellow-tan primer that dates to c. 1764. This is followed by the sixth generation wood-graining finish. Modern paints make up the rest of the stratigraphy.

Second-Floor, Northwest Room [Room 201] — Sample Location Photos

south wall, door to west passage

mantel

closet on south wall

west wall

Generation 1 (c.1751):

In this phase the house consisted only of the stair passage and eastern rooms on the first and second floors.

The woodwork in both first-floor eastern rooms was painted in the same manner, with a shellac sealant, a gray primer, and a deep blue finish. The present wainscot and baseboards did not exist at this time. The woodwork in the stair passage was prepared similarly, with a shellac sealant and a gray primer, followed by a dark brown paint made with coarsely ground pigments and coated with a thin layer of varnish. This finish extended from the first floor up to the second-floor passage. The present wainscot and baseboards did not exist at this time.

Both of the second-floor eastern rooms do not contain much early woodwork. Fragmentary gray primer on the door leaf and trim in both eastern rooms suggests these elements are original and were painted similarly to the stair passage, but this is uncertain.

Generation 2 (c.1764):

In this phase the house was extended to the west, creating the western rooms on the first and second floors.

The paints in the first-floor stair passage clearly reflected this change. The newly made door leaves and architraves leading to these western rooms are missing the first generation gray primer and dark brown paint. Instead, they were primed with a yellow-tan base coat (primer) and painted with a dark brown paint. This dark brown paint, which was thinner and more finely ground than the previous generation, was applied to all of the woodwork in the first and second-floor stair passage. It was the same color as the previous generation. The wainscot was not yet installed.

The woodwork in the new first-floor western rooms was sealed with shellac, primed with a gray-colored primer, and painted with a dark yellow-green paint. This generation was also found on the wainscot, indicating that in these rooms all woodwork was contemporary. This is interesting because it suggests that the wainscot panelling in the western rooms pre-dates the wainscot panelling in the passage and southeast room.

The first-floor eastern rooms were painted with a finish that appears to consist of indigo pigments in a resinous glaze, unique to what we have found in 18th-century Williamsburg paints. This finish appears glossy, but also very dark and greenish, most likely due to the oxidation of the resinous media. Like the passage, the wainscot in this room was not yet installed.

The finishes in the second-floor eastern rooms are unknown, since the early paints were fragmentary in these spaces.

On the second-floor, all of the woodwork in the new western wing was painted with the same yellow-tan paint that was used as the primer on the first-floor. Here, it was used as a finish coat. This finish was Robert Nicholson House Interior, Cross-Section Microscopy Report September 2013 145 exposed for a very long period of time, as the woodwork on the second floor appears to have gone unpainted until generation six.

Generations 3:

At this time, the first-floor southeast room was painted with a blue paint that matched the first generation. The first-floor western rooms were painted a light blue-green color. This paint is very grimy and appears to have been exposed for a long period of time (the next paint aligns with generation 6). The rest of the woodwork in the house was unpainted.

Generation 4:

At this time, only the first-floor southeast room was painted, using a blue paint that was the same color as the previous generation. The frequency of painting in this room suggests it was a highly visible space that was used often.

Generation 5 (c.1777):

In this period Nicolson made major upgrades to the interior of his home. In the stair passage, he installed the wainscot panelling and panelled closet in the northwest corner. The new woodwork was primed gray (5a), and all of the woodwork was painted with a finely ground dark brown paint (5b), and coated with varnish (5c). The estimated time for this period is c.1777, since it was established that thirteen years passed between generations 1 and 2 in the passage. The surface of generation 2 displays a similar level of deterioration, leading to the proposed date. Interestingly, this time period coincides with Nicolson's discontinuance of taking in lodgers, and probably reflects his improved finances and rising social status. This generation was very disrupted and soiled, suggesting it was exposed for a very long period of time.

In the southeast room, similar wainscot was installed. It was also primed gray (5a) and painted with a light blue paint (5b). Like the passage, this finish was grimy and disrupted, resulting from a long period of exposure.

There was no wainscot panelling installed in the northeast room, and this room was not repainted.

The first-floor western rooms were not repainted. None of the woodwork on the second-floor was repainted.

Generation 6:

This paint scheme was used throughout the house. The majority of woodwork was painted a cream-color, while the door leaves and wainscot caps were picked out in a faux-wood graining finish that might have imitated a lighter-colored wood, such as oak. This faux-wood graining was also found on the entire staircase, with the newels and handrails grained to imitate a more reddish-orange-colored wood. On the second floor, all of the woodwork was grained as well, again imitating a more orange-colored wood. This generation is estimated to date to the early 19th-century and would reflect the period of the Power occupancy (c.1803 - 1840).

Generation 7:

This paint scheme varied slightly throughout the house but was most often a grayish-colored paint on the woodwork with dark-brown door leaves and architraves. In some rooms, the mantels were painted black (although most mantels were not original or did not have early paint). The gray paint contains zinc white pigment, which indicates this generation post-dates c.1845.

Generation 8:

The exact scheme during this period is inconclusive, but in most rooms all of the woodwork was painted with a brick-red colored paint.

Late 19th-century early 20th-century:

After this period, the rooms in the house were repainted at different periods, and the paint layers do not clearly align. In general, all rooms contain at least three generations of finely ground, industrially prepared white paints that probably date to the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Cogar-era (1940):

The house was restored by Cogar in 1940. At this time he repainted at least some of the rooms using colors he exposed through rudimentary paint scrapes. The stair passage was painted a yellow color, which suggests that Cogar made his scrapes on one of the western doorways, mistakenly interpreting the second generation yellow-tan primer as a finish coat. The first-floor eastern rooms were painted blue, and the first-floor western rooms were painted green.

The house has been repainted by CWF approximately four times since the Cogar era. The present color on the first floor woodwork is a light blue, with the kitchen (northeast room) painted red-brown. On the second floor, the light blue from the stair passage continues up to the second floor. The woodwork in the second-floor eastern rooms are painted deep red, and the western rooms are painted light green.

Re-thinking the previous exterior paint findings:

As discussed in the "Previous Research" section of this report (p. 5), in 2006 the Period 2 (c.1764) generation paint was determined to be a medium tan color, as determined by Susan Buck using a sample taken from a window frame on the south elevation, just east of the front door. This medium-tan paint looks very similar to what is called the 'yellow-tan' interior paint used to prime the western passage doorways and finish the second-floor woodwork in Period 2.

When Natasha Loeblich re-examined the house with twenty additional samples the next year, she concluded that the first four generations were cream-colored paints. She did not find the medium-tan color identified by Buck. However, there was one sample that was an anomaly among the set: sample NC 7, taken from a window frame on the south (front) elevation, just west of the front door, which would date to Period 2. The earliest paint in the sample is a "yellow paint" that looks very similar to the yellow-tan paint used on the interior in Period 2 (Loeblich 2007, 6). Since this was the only sample containing this paint, Loeblich, understandably, dismissed it as an anomaly.

In the context of what is now known of the interior paint history, it is very possible that the yellow-tan paint used on the interior is the same as the "medium-tan paint" found by Buck and the "yellow paint" found and dismissed by Loeblich. Was this paint used as an exterior coating? Or was it applied only to these window frames for an unknown reason? Additional sampling is recommended to confirm the presence of the c.1764 yellow-tan paint on the exterior. However, since Loeblich did not find this yellow paint in any of her other nineteen samples, it may be an elusive finish.

Sample Preparation:

The samples were cast in mini-cubes of Extec Polyester Clear Resin (methyl methacrylate monomer), polymerized with the recommended amount of methyl ethyl ketone peroxide catalyst. The resin was allowed to cure for 24 hours under ambient light. After cure, the individual cubes were removed from the casting tray and sanded down using a rotary sander with grits ranging from 200 — 600 to expose the cross-section surface. The samples were then dry polished with silica-embedded Micro-mesh Inc. cloths with grits ranging from 1500 to 12,000, lending the final cross-section surface a glassy-smooth finish.

Microscopy and Documentation:

The cross-section samples were examined using a Nikon Eclipse 80i microscope equipped with an EXFO X-cite 120 fluorescence illumination system fiberoptic halogen light source. Samples were examined and photographed under visible and ultraviolet light conditions (330-380 nm), at 20 to 200x magnifications. Digital images were captured using a Spot Flex digital camera with Spot Advance (version 4.6) software. All images were recorded as 12.6 MB tiff files and stored on a hard drive in a folder titled "Nicolson House Interior" on Susan Buck's laboratory computer. A separate set of images will be stored on the CWF digital database, accompanied by the appropriate metadata and a digital version of the final report.

Binding Media Analysis using Fluorochrome staining:

Fluorochrome stains adapted from the biological sciences were used to characterize the paint binding media (oils, proteins, carbohydrates), in layers within the cross-section sample. The following stains were used in this analysis:

2,7 Dichlorofluorescein (DCF): 0.02% w/v in ethanol. Fluorescent labeling reagent for lipids, particularly drying oils. One drop of stain was applied to the surface of the sample, blotted immediately, and cover-slipped with mineral spirits. The reaction was observed with the B2A filter cube (EX 450-490nm, BA 520nm). This stain exhibits a yellow-green fluorescence where lipids are present.

Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC): 1.0% w/v in ethanol. Labeling reagent for carbohydrates (gums, starches, cellulosic thickeners). One drop of stain was applied to the surface of the sample, blotted dry, and allowed to sit for approximately 45 seconds before cover-slipping, (must be allowed to react with atmospheric moisture for reaction to move forward). The reaction is observed under reflected UV light conditions (EX 330-380nm, BA 420nm). A dark red-brown color is seen where carbohydrates are present.

Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC): 0.02% w/v in anhydrous acetone. Fluorescent labeling reagent for proteins. One drop of stain was applied to the surface of the sample, blotted immediately, and coverslipped with mineral spirits. The reaction was observed using the B-2A filter cube (EX 450-490 nm, BA 520nm). A positive reaction is a bright yellow-green fluorescence.

Pigment Identification with Polarized Light Microscopy:

To collect a pigment sample for polarized light microscopy (PLM), a surgical scalpel was used to collect a small scraping from a clean, representative area of paint. The blade was then pressed and pulled across a clean glass microscope slide, dispersing the pigment particles across the surface. The pigments were then permanently embedded under a cover slip using Cargille Meltmount (refractive index 1.66). The embedded pigments were then examined in cross and plane-polarized transmitted light with the Nikon Eclipse 80i microscope at 1000x magnification (using an oil immersion objective). The observed morphologies (size, shape, agglomeration, cleavage patterns), and optical properties (including color, refractive index, extinction), were compared to reference standards as well as literature sources before making final determinations.

Color measurement and matching:

Color measurements were taken using the Minolta Chroma Meter CR-241 colorimeter/ microscope in Susan Buck's paint analysis laboratory. Equipped with an internal 360-degree pulsed xenon arc lamp, this instrument is capable of obtaining accurate color measurements in any one of five different tristimulus color measurement systems from areas as small as 0.3mm. For the purposes of this project, color values in CIE L*a*b* colorspace and the Munsell color system were obtained.

The CIE L*a*b* color space system (developed in 1976 by the Commission International de l'Eclairage, and now an internationally accepted industry-standard color measuring system) uses three numerical values, known as "tristimulus" values, to measure color: L* is the lightness variable, representing dark to light on a scale of 0-100, while a* and b* are chromaticity coordinates, a* representing red to green on scale from -50 to +50, and b* representing blue to yellow on a scale from -50 to +50. These three coordinates are used to plot the location of a color in the CIE L*a*b* colorspace.

These resulting values can be used to quantify color differences (Δ E), between two samples. To obtain this value, the following calculation is used:

ΔE = (ΔL*)^1/2 + (Δa*)^1/2 + (Δb*)^1/2

Ideally, color measurements should be collected from a clean, unweathered sample area. If necessary, a scalpel is used to scrape an area clean before color matching. Due to inherent color variations in paints (especially in hand ground, pre-industrial coatings), multiple readings are taken and averaged together to establish the final CIE L*a*b* values.

Due to the deterioration, soiling, and fragmentary nature of some early paints, color readings cannot always be obtained with the Chroma Meter. In these instances, paints are matched by eye to Munsell standard color swatches and commercial paint chips, using a stereomicroscope at 30x magnification with a color corrected light source. Commercial systems consulted include Benjamin Moore, Sherwin Williams, Pittsburgh Paints, and the Colonial Williamsburg Color Collection.

Stair and Stair Passage [Room 105]

Samples NI 1 — NI 41 were taken from the stair and stair passage woodwork (Room 105 in the 1986 architectural report).

NI 41 East wall, doorway to present kitchen, south architrave, center fascia, 27" up from floor

First floor, southeast room [Room 107]

NI 42 West wall, door architrave (north), cyma of backband, 19" up from floor

NI 43 West wall, door leaf, bottom right panel, right beveled edge

NI 44 West wall, wainscot to right of passage door, stile just adjacent to door

NI 45 West wall, chair rail, underside of cap, 4" to right of passage door

NI 46 West wall, baseboard, top cyma, 6" to right of passage door architrave

First floor, southwest room [Room 102]

NI 47 East wall, door architrave, left side, inner fascia, 20" up from floor

NI 48 South wall, wainscot, face of second raised panel from the west

NI 49 Door leaf, bottom left panel, top left corner

NI 50 Door leaf, center left panel, ovolo on underside

NI 51 East wall, door architrave, right (south) architrave, cyma of backband, 29" from floor

NI 52 Mantel, crown molding cushion (?) above dentil course, far left end

NI 53 Mantel, backboard, far left end, 54" up from floor

NI 54 West wall, wainscot stile, 1" from north wall, top edge

NI 55 North wall, wainscot stile adjacent to mantel, 27" up from floor

First floor, Northwest room

NI 56 South wall, second wainscot panel from doorway to passage, center of the raised panel at pre-existing crack

NI 57 South wall, third wainscot panel from doorway to passage, top stile, bottom ovolo, ~14" from closet door architrave

NI 58 South wall, chair rail (top cap), above third wainscot panel from east, ~4" from closet door architrave

NI 59 South wall, closet door architrave, east jamb, backband, ~30" above floor

NI 60 South wall, closet door leaf (inferior construction), bottom left panel, lower left corner

NI 61 East wall, door architrave to passage, north side, fascia

NI 62 Door leaf to passage, lower right panel, upper left corner

NI 63 Mantel, far right end of raised panel, bottom bevel (this is a new piece)

NI 64 North wall, window architrave, east side, cyma of backband, ~24" up from bottom

NI 65 North wall, wainscot panel to left of doorway to rear room, right (east) beveled edge

First floor, Southeast Room

NI 66 South wall, window architrave, right side, cyma, 10" up from bottom

NI 67 South wall, wainscot panel to right (east) of easternmost window. Top rail, bottom ovolo

NI 68 South wall, cap (chair rail) of wainscot panel, ~3" west of easternmost window

NI 69 Door architrave to northeast room (current kitchen). Right (east) architrave, cyma of backband, 30" above floor

NI 70 Door leaf to northeast room (current kitchen), bottom left panel, beveled underside

First floor, northeast room (present kitchen)

Notes: Baseboards excavated but only recent paints found. Not sampled.

NI 71 South wall, door architrave, east side, fascia, 18" up from floor

NI 72 South wall, door leaf, lock rail, west edge

NI 73 South wall, chair rail, 7" from south wall

NI 74 West wall, door architrave to passage, south side, fascia, 16" up from floor

First floor passage

NI 75 Door architrave to northeast room, north side, center fascia, ~60" up from floor

NI 76 Door architrave to southwest room, top architrave, cyma, upper left corner

NI 77 Door architrave to southwest room, north side, inner fascia, at top near junction of top architrave

NI 78 South entrance, door architrave, east side, fillet of backband, 7" up from floor

NI 79 South entrance, door leaf, east leaf, top rail, bottom ovolo

NI 80 North entrance, door leaf, second rail from top, bottom ovolo above center of left panel

NI 81 North entrance, door architrave, left (west) architrave, inner bead, 60" up from floor

NI 82 North entrance, door architrave, left (west) architrave, backband cyma, 56" up from floor

NI 83 North entrance, door architrave, right (east) architrave, backband fillet, ~50" up from floor

Second floor, main passage

Note: Door architrave and leaf on the west wall are new

NI 84 East wall, door architrave to northeast room, fascia adjacent to backband, 24" up from floor

NI 85 East wall, door architrave to northeast room, backband cyma, 26" up from floor

NI 86 Door leaf to northeast room, bottom ovolo of lock rail, above bottom left panel

NI 87 Door leaf to southeast room, bottom beveled edge of top left panel

NI 88 South wall, door architrave to bathroom, left (east) side, fascia against backband, 20" up from floor

NI 89 South wall, door architrave to bathroom, right (west) side, cyma of backband, 50" up from floor

NI 90 South wall, door leaf to bathroom, lower left panel, bottom beveled underside

Second floor, present bathroom

Note: Window is screwed shut, cannot open. All other woodwork new

NI 91 Door leaf to passage (inferior construction), lower right panel, upper left corner

Second floor, Northeast room

Note: Baseboards had modern paints only. Not sampled.

NI 92 Door leaf to passage, upper left hand panel, center, left edge near stile

NI 93 Door to passage, trim, left side, ~30" up from floor

Second floor, west passage

NI 94 South wall, architrave of doorway from passage to present bathroom vestibule, right (east) side, fillet of backband, ~36" up from floor

NI 96 Door architrave to southwest room, right (west) side, fascia near bead, ~24" up from floor

NI 97 Door leaf to northwest room, bottom ovolo of lock rail above lower right panel

NI 98 Door leaf to southwest room, bottom ovolo of lock rail just below knob

Second floor, southwest room

Note: The trim around the door had the same paints as the leaf. Not sampled. The window sash on the south wall was examined but no old paints were found. Not sampled. The baseboards did not have a lot of paints, but one sample (NI 101) was taken.

NI 99 Door leaf to passage, lock rail, far west (left) end, bottom edge

NI 100 West wall, window architrave, bottom architrave, cyma at bottom right corner

NI 101 North wall, baseboard, at top near bead, 5" west of closet

Second floor, northwest room

Note: The trim around the door had the same paints as the leaf. Not sampled. All baseboards have only modern paints. Not sampled. Didn't find any old paints on the "old" pieces of window trim. Not sampled.

NI 102 Door leaf to passage. Bottom left panel, upper left corner

NI 103 Mantel, right side, 40" up from floor

Vestibule to present bathroom

NI 95 Door architrave to passage, west side bead between trim and stop, ~40" above floor

Second floor, southeast room [Room 209]

NI 105 Door to passage, room-side, bottom left panel, upper left corner

NI 106 Mantel, fascia board under crown molding, far right corner